Why did Henry look forward to war, and then after battle, dread it?The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane

In his experimenting with psychological realism in The Red
Badge of Courage, Stephen Crane has his character Henry face an array of feelings about
war.  As he faces combat for the first time, Henry feels anxiety, self-confidence,
courage, and zeal.

Before entering battle Henry has mixed
emotions, critically judging the men who speak of their fears and observations about the
forthcoming battle. But, as he sees the "stampede" of men coming from a squirmish,
Henry

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...resolved to get a view of it, and, then, he
might very likely run better than the best of
them.

However, many of
Henry's fantasies dissolve as the men grow closer to engaging in battle.  He feels
isolated and anxious.  But when he perceives that the enemy is upon them, Henry fires
his rifle with "a red rage," that of "a driven beast" as he fights until the enemy is
repelled. He feels himself a part, a "member," of the regiment, rather than a whole
man:

He was
wielded into a common personality....It was a mysterious fraternity born of the smoke
and danger of death.

With
animalistic emotion, Henry loses himself in the battle.  But, contrary to his
imaginings, there "was a singular absence of heroic phrases" after the battle and the
officers "neglected to stand in picturesque attitudes."  As he does feel a thrill when
he sees the flags, like beautiful birds strangely undaunted in a storm," Henry remarks
with astonishment that "Nature had gone on tranquilly with her golden process in the
midst of so much devilment."

Along with the realization
that it is an indifferent universe in which man engages in all his joys and conflicts,
Henry begins to see the real horror of war.  He feels "like the proverbial chicken" as
he runs from death:  "Destruction threatened him from all points."  Henry looks in
amazement at the battery who seem "unaware of the impending annihilation."  He becomes
bitter at their blind ignorance, and feels himself enlightened in comparison.  But he
dreads returning to camp where the "density" of the others that would prevent their
understanding of his "sharper point of view":

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A dull animal-like rebellion against his fellows,
war in the abstract, and fate grew within
him.

In short, whereas the
idealistic Henry has been swept into a "red rage" in the first squirmish, he
later realizes the waste and futility of war in an indifferent
universe.

What is the idea of home and why is it important thematically in the poem "The Death of the Hired Man"?

Frost's poem contains one of the most quoted lines in all of poetry;  "Home is the place where, when you go there, they have to take you in" (lines 118-119). 

The idea is that "home" is the one place where you cannot be rejected.  One is bonded for life to their biological ties, but "home" is also the place where love creates an unbreakable bond. 

The conflict of the concept of home occurs when the itinerant worker, Silas, makes himself too comfortable, in the eyes of Warren, the owner of the home he shares with his wife, Mary.  Warren feels that Silas is taking advantage of them and their good nature, making claims of "home" to which he has no right, for Silas is not a blood relation. 

Mary, however, is more open to the concept of home.  She feels that because Silas has placed such trust in them, and because Silas has no other place to go, that the man can rightfully claim their home as refuge, even if he has a living relative.  Mary pleads with her husband, "But have some pity on Silas.  Do you think / If he had any pride in claiming kin/ Or anything he looked for from his brother, / He'd keep so still about him all this time?" (135-38).  For additional leverage, Mary reminds Warren of Silas' service.  "But Warren," she cajoles, "please remember how it is: / He's come to help you ditch the meadow" (156-57). 

Home, indeed, is where the heart is. 

Who was the first Pope?

The Pope is the head of the Roman Catholic  church.

Doctrinally the pope is regarded as the spiritual successor of the apostle St.Peter the first pope: In Matthew 16: 18-19 Jesus says "and I say to you that you are Peter and on this rock I will build my church." However it took  more than a thousand years for papacy as we know it today to be formally institutionalised. 

Historically speaking pope Pius I (142-155) was the first single bishop presiding over the diocese of Rome.

Gradually the power and the influence of the  of the pope increased as the later popes  involved themselves in temporal and political matters: In 452 AD it was pope Leo I who went outside Rome and met Atilla the Hun and convinced him to withdraw his forces. In 800 AD pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor.

But it was only under pope Gregory VII who was elected in 1073 that the pope virtually became a monarch. Historians treat the period of pope Gregory's rule as the apex of the papacy.

Needless to say, the instituion of papacy and the role of the pope is constantly changing and evolving, for in history only change is constant.

What is the conflict in "Sweat"?

The conflict is mainly between the protagonist, Delia, and her husband, Sykes, who is horribly mean and cruel to her.  He is cheating on her and has before and treats her as if she is a servant.  He also beats her.  

She has taken all that she can handle, but is limited by her race and gender as to what she can do about it.  This is why when the snake bites Sykes, she simply watches him die...she can't make herself save him.  Anyone could understand why she would have done what she did, really. 

At the end,

Sykes, whose head is clearing from gin, hears nothing until he reaches behind the stove to look for a match. But they are all gone, and Sykes hears the rattling right beneath him, so he leaps up on the bed. Delia can hear a horrible scream as Sykes is being attacked, and she becomes ill. While lying down to recover, she hears Sykes moan her name and gets up to walk towards the door. He crawls towards her and realizes that she had been there the whole time.

Because of this, Sykes dies, realizing, though, that Delia had seen him get bitten and that she did nothing about it.  Perhaps then Sykes might have realized the many errors of his ways.

What is the difference between Frankenstein's inner self and his outward appearance?

In addition to the above answer, the monster is the combination of many different humans - but he has his own unique personality.  He has clear rationale for his plan and what he intends to do.  He has specific goals just for himself.  He does not see himself as a "mixed" being - he sees himself as an independent and sovereign being.  As an individual, he goes through the life process of a human - as a "newborn", he deals with the sensations of his body:

and it was, indeed, a long time before I learned to distinguish between the operations of my various senses.

He learns speech, like a toddler:

I discovered the names that were given to some of the most familiar objects of discourse; I learned and applied the words,

He learns emotions, and sharing emotions with others:

when they were unhappy, I felt depressed; when they rejoiced, I sympathized in their joys

And he comes to the point where he begins to think critically:

Of what a strange nature is knowledge! It clings to the mind when it has once seized on it like a lichen on the rock.

Shelley strongly suggests, through the contrast between inner and outer, that the soul is separate from the vessel that carries it through the world.

How Did John Proctor impact "The Crucible", and how is he considered an American hero?

John Proctor is the main character, or the Protagonist of The Crucible.  He is at the center, along with Abigail Williams, of the witch trials hysteria.  Even though Proctor attempts to stay out of the middle of the fear and paranoia that grips Salem, he is dragged into it by Abigail's accusation against Elizabeth Proctor.

Proctor's affair with Abigail has set the entire accusation process in motion.  It is because of Abigail's desire to get back together with Proctor and to eliminate his wife, that she takes control of the group of girls leading them in pretending to see spirits in court. 

She advances her plan to get rid of Elizabeth by accusing her of witchcraft. Once Elizabeth is arrested, Proctor has no choice but to go to court and fight for her life.

 "When the accusations fly at the trials, he is determined to tell the truth, even if it means criticizing and antagonizing the investigators. His determination to expose Abigail's false accusations eventually leads him to admit his own adultery to the court."

John Proctor is considered a tragic hero, and an American hero, because he makes the ultimate sacrifice, giving up his life for his beliefs.

Proctor surrenders his earthly life rather than give up his name and reputation in Salem.  He gets some of his dignity back by confessing his sin with Abigail and then decides to protect his family by not saving his life by confessing to witchcraft.

Why doesn't Stephen Crane name all of his characters in "Red Badge of Courage"?

One of reasons Crane does not name all his characers is because a primary theme of "The Red Badge of Courage" is the anonymity of war, or how the individual is lost in the machinery of combat.  In the opening pages of Section 1, Crane speaks of the army unit as an entity unto itself, telling the reader that "the army awakened", and that "the army might start on the march".  The names of the characters who make up the unit are not important, just as the individual himself is not important once he has surrendered himself to the inexorable machine. 

"The Red Badge of Courage", as a naturalistic work, focuses on the powerlessness of men in the face of nature and outside forces.  Man is insignificant, so it really doesn't much matter who a person is in the greater scheme of things.  Especially in combat, Crane is saying that individuals have little choice in how they conduct themselves.  Although their goals and aspirations may be lofty at first, once they are "part of (the) blue demonstration" (Section 2), they pretty much end up either doing what they are told, or what everyone else is doing.  As Jim Conklin, one of the few named characters observes, "if a whole lot of boys started and run, why, I s'pose I'd start and run...but is everybody was a-standing and a-fighting, why, I'd stand and fight" (Section 1).